Time Period 1 (1450-1648) | AP European History (2023)

Renaissance

Protestant Reformation

Age of Exploration

Developments in Europe in 1600s

• Merchants became really wealthy & led comfortable lives

  • Florence was the wealthiest city-state

  • Most merchants were wealthy bankers

• Most Northern Italian states were known as communes

  • Ruled by a few wealthy merchants (oligarchy)

  • Only wealthy merchants or people who lived their for a long time could afford to stay

  • Merchants regulated everything, nobles didn't have much power

  • These wealthy merchant rulers built huge courts to display their wealth

    • Important ceremonies would happen there

• Renaissance created a strong attachment to one city, leading to the growth of major city-states

  • Larger Italian city-states were dominating & absorbing the smaller ones

  • Venice, Milan, Papal States (Rome), Naples, & Florence were most powerful states

    • Venice was ruled by merchant oligarchy

    • Milan was ruled by Sforza family

    • Spanish Kingdom ofAragon ruled Naples

    • Medici family ruled Florence

• Dominican Friar Girolamo Savanarola expelled Medicis from Florence

  • Believed Medicis were corrupt as they were secular & corrupt

  • Savanarola organized government according to Christian standards

  • Pope excommunicated him & Medicis retook power as Florentines became tired of his rule

• Renaissance refers to a "rebirth" of human achievements & ancient literature

  • Giorgio Vasari first coined the word "Renaissance"​

• Humanism refers to the study of human achievements

  • Francesco Petrarch uncovered ancient Roman texts, believed those to be valuable

    • Studied Cicero, enjoyed his elegant writing & use of Latin language​

  • Petrarch's revival of ancient Latin classics was known as humanism

• Believed humans lay in between God & material world

  • Marsilio Ficino believed Plato was precursor of Christ

  • Giovanni Pico della Mirandola believed humans that to excellentthings have virtú (virtue)

    • Wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, detailing how being a man is a really good thing​

  • Believed instudying things in their ideal form

• Believed education was for the public good as opposed to for private or religious purposes

  • Believed all men should be educated in Latin classics & humanist thought​

  • Didn't believe women should be educated as much

  • Baldassare Castiglione wroteThe Courtier(1528), believed men should be educated to gain a higher place in society

• Niccolo Machiavelli wroteThe Prince(1532)

  • Believed rulers should be wise & must preserve security​

  • Believed rulers can do brutal things to maintain power but shouldn't do anything for personal pleasure

• Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in 1440s

  • Used stamps to print letters just like stamps would print symbols on jewelry

• More books were disseminated via printing press

  • Renaissance thinkers spread their ideas via books​

  • More literacy (because more schools opened) led to a larger audience for books

  • Books were written for secular purposes as well

• Print houses became common

  • Many people opened these to disseminate the latest Renaissance books

  • People gathered in print houses to discuss the books

• Literate people would read to illiterate people

• Renaissance ideals were shown via art

• Urban groups & wealthy people commissioned famous artists to make works of art

  • Filippo Brunelleschi designed the Florence dome​

  • Michelangelo painted the Sistine Chapel of Vatican City, commissioned by Pope Julius II

• Art showed human ideals as opposed to spiritual ideals

  • Giotto started by sculpting/painting realhuman figuresinstead of exaggerated​​body parts

  • Filippo Brunelleschi also developed linear perspective

    • This can create 3-D depictions on a 2-D surface​

    • Piera della Francesca used linear perspective in his works

  • Donatello sculpted accurate human figures to represent balance instead of exaggeration

• Artists were patronized for their artistic styles

• Most artists were trained in workshops

  • Women rarely received full training like men​

• Northern Renaissance was the spread of Renaissance ideals throughout Europe (north of Italy)

• Some Northern Renaissance thinkers combined Christianity with Humanism

  • Believed classical values of patience & calmness combine with Christian values of love & faith

• Thomas More (England) published Utopia(1516)​

  • Believed there lay a utopian land where everyone receives humanist education,& poverty is solved​

• Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam) wrote scholarly books to harmonize humanism with Christianity

  • Believed in inner morality rather than Scholastic theology

  • Believed the church should have a renaissance

  • Promoted reading the Bible & Christian texts

  • TranslatedNew Testamentinto Latin

• Northern Renaissance art used oil paintings & wood panels

  • Albrecht Dürer created woodcuts & other mechanical devices to help artists with linear perspective

  • Mannerismdeveloped, where people used oil paintings to exaggerate certain body parts or expressions

• Slavery was somewhat common

  • Africans were regarded as inferior & many Europeans kept Africans as slaves

  • Started in Ancient Rome, but local authorities banned slavery later on

  • Slavery continued later, having slaves signified wealth

• Most hierarchies were based on wealth

  • Wealthy merchants lived in large houses & sometimes gained political power

  • Still, nobles had higher social status than commoners

  • People did things for honor, regardless of the wealth it provided​

• Women were regarded as inferior to men

  • Many philosophers wondered why women were inferior​

  • ​Unmarried men were inferior to married men

  • Women needed to be married as they couldn't support a family with their small wage

  • This gender arrangement was the most natural hierarchical arrangement in society

• Many Jews came to Spain as France & England expelled all their Jews

  • Jews were really good in business

  • High Jewish population led to many Anti-Semitic programs to expel the Jews

  • Most Jews converted, but Spanish Catholics believed they weren't pure Catholics (they still had "Jewish blood")

    • Thus, 75% of Jews in Spain fled​

• Isabella & Ferdinand's daughter married King of Netherlands & Holy Roman Empire, so their son, Charles V or Habsburgs, had a huge inherited realm (Spain, Netherlands, Germany, etc.)

• Martin Luther, a theology professor at the University of Wittenberg in Germany, believed the Catholic church was corrupt

• In 1517, Luther wrote95 Theses, a pamphlet with 95 arguments against the church & nailed it to the door of Wittenberg Church

• Pope Leo X excommunicated him in 1520

• At Diet of Worms (1521), Luther refused to recant his ideas

  • Luther's refusal to recant his ideas led more people to hear about his ideas

• Protestant Church was created at Diet of Speyer (1529)

  • Believed god initiated salvation​

  • Religious authority rest in the Bible alone

  • Only approved religious practices that can be supported by the Bible or other scriptures

    • The Sacraments were rejected as the scriptures didn't write about them

• Ulrich Zwingli, a Swiss man, helped Luther spread his ideas

  • Believed in only using the New Testament, as it contained the true words of god​

• Protestant ideals spread quickly via the printing press

  • Humanists liked Protestantism because of its idea of leading simple lives based on faith

• Luther & Zwingli appointed pastors in local cities to help spread Protestantism

• A group known as "Radicals" wanted a religious institution separate from state & mounted revolts

  • Known as anabaptists as they baptized adults

  • Didn't believe in a state church, wanted church to be separate from state

  • Peasants got angry due to crop failures & confiscation of property by government, so they led a massive rebellion

    • They wanted church-state separation

    • Government crushed this, 75,000 died

• Protestants believed all women should be married

  • Hated prostitution, forced brothels to close

  • Believed clergymen should marry, and their wives would have respectable positions as pastors' wives

  • Believed marriage represents spiritual equality of men & women

  • Forced monasteries/covenants to close

  • Women could not be members of clergy

• Charles V, ruler of Habsburg domain,signed Peace of Augsburg (1555)

  • Charles V acquired this land through family marriages, ruled large area from Austria to Spain

  • Called Diet of Augsburg (1550) to promote Catholicism & stop religious division

  • Protestants mounted coalition against him, so he signed Peace of Augsburg (1555)

    • Allowed each st​ate to choose its own religion (Catholicism or Lutheranism)

• Protestantism appealed in Scandinavia

  • King Christian III of Denmark-Norway (union of the two states) adopted Lutheranism

    • Spread easily in Denmark & slowly in Norway & Iceland​

  • King Gustav I of Sweden adopted Lutheranism

    • Later altered Lutheran doctrine slightly to create their own church

• Czechs in Bohemia first partially embraced Lutheranism but then reconverted to Catholicism

• Poland-Lithuania (joint government) first initially had some converts to Lutheranism & Calvinism, but later reverted to Catholicism after counter reformation

• Hungarians hated Germans so they didn't embrace Protestantism

  • After Ottoman invasion of Hungary, part of Hungary became Lutheran

  • In late 1600s when Ottomans retreated & Habsburgs retook power, Catholicism became dominant again

• King Henry VIII created Church of England

  • Was married to Catherine of Aragon, daughter of rulers of Spain

  • Catherine was the widow of Henry VIII's brother, but their marriage was against Christian law

  • Catherine's nephew, Charles V (Habsburg ruler), besieged Rome & kept Pope Clement VII as a prisoner, but Charles V disapproved the divorce

  • Thus, Henry VIII proclaimed autonomy from papal authority & created Anglican Church

    • Had some Catholic elements like ornate ceremonies, hierarchical clergy, but was mostly Protestant​

    • Confiscated property of monasteries & distributed them to upper class

  • Irish were Catholic & England had some rule over Ireland

    • Irish Catholics revolted, but English confiscated their land & forced them to convert

  • Thomas Cranmer (archbishop of Canterbury) wroteBook of Common Prayer(1549), which became official book of Anglican Church

• John Calvin converted to Protestantism, created his own denomination of Protestantism in Geneva

  • Believed God had chosen a group of people for salvation (an idea known aspredestination)

    • That group was known as "the elect"​

  • Believed that people should work hard as it portrays that they were among "the elect"

  • Believed all sovereignty is in god, no importance for human beings

  • Executed all heretics to Calvinism

• Scotland later created Presbyterian Church, modeled on Calvinism

  • Many Scottish nobles supported Protestantism while the king & queen were Catholic

  • Scottish man John Knox convinced Scottish Parliament to abandon papal authority

    • Wanted religious leadership of a council of ministers (known as Presbyters)

  • Created Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which was Calvinist & had a simple doctrine

• War between Catholics & Protestants of Holy Roman Empire

• Treaty of Augsburg (1555) was signed between Lutherans & Catholics

  • Allowed each ​German state to choose their own state religion

• Treaty of Augsburg was deteriorating as people kept converting to other branches of Christianity

• Lutherans formed Protestant Union (1608), Catholics formed Catholic League (1609)

• Started out as Catholic Bohemians challenged Protestant rule of Holy Roman Empire

• War is divided into 4 phases

• War ended with Peace of Westphalia (1648)

  • Recognized independence of over 300 German states

  • Allowed each state to worship Lutheranism, Calvinism, Catholicism

  • Mostly Northern German states were Protestant & Southern states were Catholic

• Pope Paul III called Council of Trent (1545-1563) to reform Catholic doctrine

  • Sought to reconcile all of Christianity​

  • Banned sale of indulgences

  • Required all bishops to reside in their dioceses

    • Bishops thus can only hold one office, ending practice of pluralism

  • Required stricter education & stricter selection process for clergymen

  • Made scriptures the true source of religious authority

  • Still kept Latin as official language of church

• Ignatius Loyola founded Society of Jesus (1534)

  • Followers were known as Jesuits

  • Had rigorous training standards

  • Believed in asceticism, seclusion, & prayer

  • Appealed to many people, got many Protestants to convert back to Catholicism

• Witch-hunting became common

  • People tried & executed those who they believed worshipped the Devil​

  • Believed they wanted to overthrow Christianity

  • People would accuse others whom they believed were witches, mostly women

  • 45,000 supposed witches were executed

  • Witch-hunting was done in mass (witch panics) after a natural disaster

    • People would blame multiple people for horrible things, often because one witch would give the names of other witches

• Trade was popular in Silk Road, Indian Ocean, and trans-Saharan trade routes

  • Mongols connected China to the West

  • India & Southeast Asia became wealthy from Indian Ocean

  • West Africa became wealthy from gold trade

• Before European exploration, Venice & Genoa dominated European trade

  • Venice would acquire luxury goods from the East & trade with the rest of Europe for huge profits

  • Genoa would look west & help with finance

• Venice & Genoa were crucial for European exploration

  • Venice dominated slavery in Black Sea region​

  • Genoa dominated slavery in North Africa, Iberia, and Canary Islands

  • Both were crucial in bringing slavery to the New World

  • Genoa's finance techniques were used to finance exploration in the New World

• State-sponsored exploration was very common

  • States wanted glory for their nation, so they sponsored voyages of exploration​

• States wanted to spread Christianity

  • After Spanish reconquista, where they Spanish conquered all non-Catholic kingdoms in Iberia, they wanted to spread Catholicism throughout the world

  • Other Protestant nations wanted to spread their denomination of Christianity

• Technological innovations made travel easy

  • New ships (caravel, carrack, fluyt) made travel easier as they were sturdier & could withstand rough winds

  • Lateen sail (triangle-shaped) could catch winds on both sides

  • Sternpost rudder helps with maneuverability

  • Astrolabe determines latitude

  • Magnetic compass determines direction

  • Barometer determines air pressure & can detect a storm

  • Other innovations in deciphering wind currents helped sailors take advantage of wind currents

• Rivalries among European nations sparked exploration

  • European nations wanted to conquer more land than others

• Portugal started European exploration

  • It's unique location (facing westward into Atlantic & blocked eastward by Spain) made it necessary for Portuguese to expand westward

  • Prince Henry (Henry the Navigator) sponsored voyages down the African west coast

  • Portuguese built trading posts on African west coast & forged alliances with African kingdoms

  • Conquered many African islands in the Atlantic

  • Bartholomew Diaz sailed around Southern Tip of Africa in 1488 but returned immediately to Portugal

  • In 1497, Vasco da Gama sailed around the Southern Tip of Africa to India & came back to Portugal with lots of spices

• Christopher Columbus sailed westward to Americas in 1492

  • Sponsored by Spanish, sought a westward route to Asia

  • Landed in Bahamas, thought it was Japan

  • Confiscated gold from local Taíno people & enslaved them

  • Sent letters to Spain, Rapidly spread news about the land

  • Still believed the land he found to be Japan or China

• In 1497, Amerigo Vespucci sailed to Brazil & realized that the land is a New World & isn't Asia

  • Thus, the New World was named America after him

• Spain wanted a sea route to Maluku spice islands of Southeast Asia, so they employed Ferdinand Magellan

  • In 1519, Magellan sailed through a strait in the tip of South America (now named after him) & died after a physical argument in the Philippines​

  • His crew returned to Spain in 1522

• Spain continued its expansion in the Americas as it was jealous of Portuguese success in India

• Jacques Cartier sailed for France & landed in Montreal

  • Traded beaver fur with natives & acquired lots of fish

    • Fish was popular as other meat was prohibited by Church on special days

• Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) set rules for Spanish & Portuguese colonization

  • An imaginary line was drawn in Atlantic Ocean: Spain could have all lands west, Portugal could have all lands east​

• Spain had direct rule over its colonies from the Spanish Crown

  • Two viceroyalties: New Spain (Mexico), New Castile (Peru)

  • Viceroy was Spanish representative to the colonies & governed all colonial affairs

  • Audienciawas a council below the viceroy that would support him & report any power abuses to the king

  • Corregidoreswere local governors that would govern local affairs in parts of colonies

• Spanish had many innovative labor systems

  • Establishedencomiendasystem, where Spanish encomendoreswould look after indigenous American laborers in exchange for giving them shelter & food

  • Later usedhaciendasystem, where indigenous laborers would work on Spanish plantations

  • In Mit'a system, each village would send 1/7 of its men to Spanish silver mines to work

  • Many indigenous Americans died of overwork

• Spanish dominated silver trade in Americas

  • Had two silver mines: Zacatecas (Mexico), Potosí (Peru)

  • Would use indigenous & slave labor to work in them

  • Manila galleons would transport silver from Mexico to Philippines, where Spanish would sell them to China for Chinese luxury goods

• Due to high silver production, Spain had severe inflation

  • Spanish expelled Muslims & Jews during reconquista, which were its best businessmen, which caused Spanish economy to decline​

  • As silver in New World declined, Spain had severe inflation & lost its influence in the New World

  • Spain's wealthy landowners raised rent, causing peasants to leave, leading to lower agricultural production

  • Spanish kings didn't care much about the internal problems, leading to a decline in Spanish power

  • Spain lost Franco-Spanish War & signed Treaty of Pyrenees (1659), giving all extensive territories to France

  • Spain recognized Portuguese independence in 1688

• Portugal also had direct rule from Portuguese crown

  • Would give land grants to Portuguese nobles to settle in the New World to established Portuguese presence

• Spanish & Portuguese established Christianity in New World

  • Many Dominican, Franciscan, Jesuit missionaries came

  • Virgin of Guadalupe became a symbol of Christianity in Mexico

    • Formed a Virgin Mary appeared on a hill near Mexico City

  • Some missionaries learned about American native culture to better understand how to teach them Christianity

• English established many colonies in present-day US

  • First was Roanoke, established in 1585

    • It's settlers lost contact with Britain

  • Virginia was founded in Jamestown in 1607

  • Plymouth was founded by pilgrims onMayflower1620

  • Puritans settled in Massachusetts in 1630

  • Catholics settled in Maryland in 1632

  • Quakers settled in Pennsylvania in 1681

  • Mostly wanted to avoid religious persecution in England

  • Mostly governed by local councils as opposed to direct governance by English crown

• Samuel de Champlain created permanent French settlement in Quebec in 1608

  • Founded Montreal later on

  • French sailed throughout St. Lawrence river

  • French traded fur with indigenous people

  • French reached Louisiana & Gulf of Mexico via Mississippi River

  • French acquired many colonies & islands in Caribbean & put sugar/tobacco production there

  • French also mostly had local governance instead of direct governance from the French crown

• Dutch took over Portuguese prestige in Indian Ocean​

  • Dutch ship (fluyt) was faster than Portuguese caravel, so Dutch were able to take over Portuguese ports

  • Dutch East India Company (VOC) was established in 1602

    • Got trading concessions in Indonesia in exchange for assisting local Indonesian kings in shirmishes​

    • Expelled Portuguese from Ceylon & other islands

    • Dominated spice trade

Raw materials cultivated by slaves

Slaves

• Europeans allied with African kingdoms to get slaves

  • African kingdoms would raid other kingdoms to capture slaves and would receive guns from Europeans

  • African kingdoms would use these guns to capture more slaves & would then acquire more guns from Europeans

  • The cycle is endless, which caused certain African kingdoms to become super powerful by acquiring guns

• Slaves first had to travel the middle passage from Africa to Americas

  • Hundreds of slaves crammed into one deck

  • 25% of slaves died in this passage

  • Sick slaves would be thrown overboard to prevent the spread of disease on board

• In Americas, slaves were forced to do harsh work

  • Often whipped or beaten for working poorly

  • Mortality was high, which caused a greater demand for new slaves from Africa

• In the Americas, slaves often harmonized their culture with American culture

  • They harmonized African religion with Christianity

  • Harmonized rituals & dances from different parts of Africa among all the slaves they met

• Ideas about race helped justify slavery

  • Europeans regarded Africans as racially inferior to Europeans, which allowed them to enslave them​

  • Michel de Montaigne & William Shakespeare wrote about topics related to racism

• Slaves cultivated sugar & other cash crops in Americas

  • Slaves cultivated sugar, tobacco, indigo, rice, cotton in Americas, which were all sent to Europe

  • In Europe, some of these were used to make manufactured goods

• Mercantilist principles developed in Europe

  • Mercantilism is the idea that there is a fixed amount of wealth in the world

  • The wealth in the world is measured in gold, and Europeans want a higher share of this wealth

• Joint-stock companies emerged

  • Many merchants would pool their resources to finance enormous trading expeditions to yield huge profits

  • All merchants would share the profits & losses

  • Successful voyages would yield huge profits

  • European governments adopted laws in favor of these merchants

  • Dutch VOC & British East India Company yielded huge profits from trade with India & Indonesia

• Exchange of goods, animals, crops, and diseases from Afro-Eurasia to the Americas

  • First time the ecosystems of Americas & Afro-Eurasia wereconnected

  • Potatoes, maize, squash, tomatoes went from Americas to Afro-Eurasia

    • Led to enriched diet& population growth in Afro-Eurasia

  • Livestock, fruits, sugarcane, disease went from Afro-Eurasia to Americas

• Disease was one of the most influential things that went from Afro-Eurasia to Americas

  • Indigenous peoples of Americas weren't immune to European diseases→ Died in large numbers

  • Whooping cough, smallpox, measles all killed majority of indigenous American population

• Peasants lived very poor lives

  • Many were landless & lived on shared community farms​

  • Some peasants had their own land & could sell produce on the market

  • Most ate bread for nearly all of their meals

• Little Ice Age of 1600s led to lower crop yields & famine

• Monarchs consolidated all power, giving none to peasants

  • Monarchs claimed "divine right" (the idea that god allowed them to rule)

  • Peasants had no voice in government

• Emotional & exuberant art style

  • Instead of realist works (like Renaissance), they'd glorify & exaggerate certain figures

  • Had lots of emotion, tension, animation, contrast

  • Often glorified monarchs or religious figures

  • Wanted paintings to appeal to the senses of ordinary people instead of only the wealthy (like Renaissance)

• Baroque art was often used in churches & Catholic buildings

• Baroque Music came later

  • Johann Sebastian Bach wrote both secular & religious pieces with lots of emotion & tension​